The Heavenly god: Exploring the Bear totem in Ancient China
Jul 25, 2024 17:48:40 GMT -5
Montezuma likes this
Post by Montezuma on Jul 25, 2024 17:48:40 GMT -5
Introduction
Since the dawn of Chinese cultural development, one of the few animals have constantly beheld it's supreme status in the mythistory of China from prehistoric hunting societies to advanced civilized dynasties - the Bear. A symbol of heaven, resurrection, immortality, divinity, valour, ancestory and wisdom, the bear has long been revered as a sacred animal in Prehistoric and ancient China as evident in Bear totem, Bear worship, Bear iconography, Bear myth and Legends etc.
We come to see bears appearing constantly in Neolithic cultures of China like Hongshan, Xinglongwa, Erlitou, Liangzhu to ancient dynasties of Xia, Shang, Zhou, Chu, Qin, Han, Qing etc as sacred and mythological beings connected with legendary figures and sacred elements of nature, cosmology and metaphysics. Why it is important to discover the bear totem in China? Because China itself is very important as being one of earliest civilization to appear on planet earth along with Mesopotamia, Mesoamerica, Andean, Egypt and Indus valley and China is the mother of all Sinic civilizations we know today like Japan and Korea etc; and so seeing how much the bear was revered in this important area of the world in pretty much interesting.
Remains of the Niuheliang temple of Hongshan culture, the first ever complete religious temple in Neolithic China with various Jade and stone figures carved in 'Bear' forms.
But before we dive into this, I want to clarify some important keywords. Since most of us are not much familiar to Chinese history and mythology as we are with Egyptian or Greek, down here I have explained some important sacred materials, dynasties, cultures and symbols important to Chinese mythology and history. A link is provided to each to ease further inquiring if needed by the user.
1. Xia dynasty (2070 - 1600 BC)
The Xia dynasty (Chinese: 夏朝; pinyin: Xiàcháo; Wade–Giles: Hsia4-ch‘ao2) is the first dynasty in traditional Chinese historiography. According to tradition, it was established by the legendary figure Yu the Great, after Shun, the last of the Five Emperors, gave the throne to him. The legendary figure of the deified king Yu the great, Gun and Qi belong to this dynasty. This dynasty is thought to be the culmination of all prehistoric and ancient Chinese cultures in myth-history, making it an important dynasty.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xia_dynasty
2. Shang Dynasty (1600 - 1046 BC)
The Shang dynasty (Chinese: 商朝; pinyin: Shāng cháo), also known as the Yin dynasty (殷代; Yīn dài), was a Chinese royal dynasty that ruled in the Yellow River valley during the second millennium BC, traditionally succeeding the Xia dynasty and followed by the Western Zhou dynasty. The existence of Xia dynasty is a topic of controversy, however, the historical proof of Shang Dynasty is undisputed among historians.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shang_dynasty
3. Zhou Dynasty (1046 - 256 BC)
The Zhou dynasty ([ʈʂóʊ]; Chinese: 周)[c] was a royal dynasty of China that existed for 789 years from c. 1046 BC until 256 BC, the longest of such reign in Chinese history. During the Western Zhou period (c. 1046 – 771 BC), the royal house, surnamed Ji, had military control over ancient China. It was divided into two distinct states: Eastern and Western Zhou.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_dynasty
4. Chu dynasty (1030 BC – 223 BC)
Being one of the most important and long reigning dynasties in Chinese history, the Chu (Chinese: 楚; pinyin: Chǔ; Wade–Giles: Ch'u, Old Chinese: *s-r̥aʔ[3]) was an ancient Chinese state during the Zhou dynasty. Their first ruler was King Wu of Chu in the early 8th century BC. Chu was located in the south of the Zhou heartland and lasted during the Spring and Autumn period. At the end of the Warring States period it was destroyed by the Qin in 223 BC during the Qin's wars of unification. As the founder of the Han dynasty was from the state, Chu culture would later become a basis of the culture of the later Han dynasty.
Chu state shown in Red colour by 300 BC.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chu_(state)
5. Qin Dynasty (221 BC–206 BC)
The Qin dynasty ( 秦 ) was the first dynasty of Imperial China. It was formally established after the conquests in 221 BC, when Ying Zheng, who had become king of the Qin state in 246, declared himself to be "Shi Huangdi", the first emperor. Many important governmental, military and other reforms took place during Qin era and many warring states were unified as well under their heel.
Qin empire shown in orange colour adjacent to other countries.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qin_dynasty
5. Han dynasty (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD)
The Han dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and a warring interregnum known as the Chu–Han contention (206–202 BC), and it was succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD).
The dynasty was briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD) established by the usurping regent Wang Mang, and is thus separated into two periods—the Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) and the Eastern Han (25–220 AD).
Spanning over four centuries, the Han dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history, and had a permanent impact on Chinese identity in later periods.The majority ethnic group of modern China refer to themselves as the "Han people" or "Han Chinese".
The Han dynasty oversaw periods of economic prosperity as well as significant growth in the money economy that had first been established during the Zhou dynasty (c. 1050 – 256 BC).
There were significant advances in science and technology during the Han period, including the emergence of paper making, rudders for steering ships, negative numbers in mathematics, raised-relief maps, hydraulic-powered armillary spheres for astronomy, and seismometers that discerned the cardinal direction of distant earthquakes by use of inverted pendulums.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty
The warring states period (475–221 BC)
The Warring States period was an era in ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, bureaucratic and military reform, and political consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded with the wars of conquest that saw the state of Qin annex all the other contender states by 221 BC and found the Qin dynasty, the first imperial dynasty in Chinese history.
The seven Warring States of Yan, Zhao, Han, Wei, Qi, Chu, Qin c. 260 BC
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warring_States_period
1. Middle (a very sacred position)
In Chinese myth and cosmology, the middle position is the most revered position; even the word 'China' is their language translates to "middle' which alone signifies this position's high status. They called themselves 'zhong' which means 'middle kingdom'. Some examples:
"We know that in Chinese, China literally means the middle kingdom. The most powerful country in the whole universe must be in the middle. So, the central position is for the holiest of all, which is the king of gods in the universe." (p.50)
books.google.com.pk/books?id=fSbsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA55&dq=bear%20totem%20in%20chu&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved
"At different times China was called the Middle or Central Kingdom, implying its superior role, the Centre of Civilisation or even the World."
australian.museum/learn/cultures/international-collection/chinese/middle-kingdom/
2. Heavens {Tian (天)}
Tian (天) is one of the oldest Chinese terms for heaven and a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophy, and religion.
Tian was viewed as "the dwelling place of gods and other superhuman beings". It was also viewed as "the guardian of both the moral laws of mankind and the physical laws of nature...and is synonymous with the divine will.
In Chinese culture, heaven tends to be "synonymous with order", "containing the blueprints for creation", "the mandate by which earthly rulers govern, and the standards by which to measure beauty, goodness, and truth.
In ancient China, the Emperor of China was regarded as the Son of Heaven, who administered earthly matters on behalf of, and representing, heavenly authority.
The 'Temple of Heavens', one of most beautiful and symbolic structure connected to the heavenly spirit in China.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tian#:~:text=In%20Chinese%20culture%2C%20heaven%20tends
3. Immortality
Immortality, rebirth and dead soul has an important figure in Chinese religious and philosophical themes.
4. Bear-dragons
Also called pig-dragons though according to the recent and authentic sources it has been corrected to bear dragons; those C-shaped Jade artefacts are the earliest form of Chinese dragon and they are though as the first representation of dragon in the Sinic world.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pig_dragon
5. Xiong means bear, some mythic bear names:
Feixiong: flying bear
Daxiong: big bear
Tia Xiong: heavenly bear
Big tradition & small tradition
The terms "Big Tradition" and "Small Tradition" were introduced by the anthropologist Robert Redfield in his 1956 book "Peasant Society and Culture". Redfield used these terms to distinguish between two types of cultural traditions:
Big Tradition:
- Refers to the dominant, mainstream culture of a society
- Characterized by:
- High-level, formal, and standardized cultural expressions (e.g., literature, art, music)
- Often associated with urban, educated, and elite groups
- May be influenced by global or universal cultural trends
- Examples: National cultures, religious traditions, or artistic movements
Small Tradition:
- Refers to local, folk, or vernacular cultural expressions
- Characterized by:
- Informal, practical, and community-based cultural practices (e.g., customs, rituals, crafts)
- Often associated with rural, local, or marginalized groups
- May be unique to a specific region or community
- Examples: Folk music, local dialects, traditional crafts, or community celebrations
Key differences:
- Big Tradition is more formal, standardized, and widely recognized, while Small Tradition is more informal, local, and community-based.
- Big Tradition often has higher social status and prestige, while Small Tradition may be seen as more authentic or genuine.
- Big Tradition may be more influenced by global or universal trends, while Small Tradition is often more rooted in local context and history.
Redfield's distinction highlights the diversity and complexity of cultural expressions within societies, emphasizing the importance of considering both the dominant and local traditions in understanding human culture.
1. Jade (Semi-precious stone)
Chinese jade refers to the jade mined or carved in China from the Neolithic onward. It is the primary hardstone of Chinese sculpture.
In particular, its subtle, translucent colors and protective qualities caused it to become associated with Chinese conceptions of the soul and immortality. With gold, it was considered to be a symbol of heaven. Jade production began in China over seven millennia ago (c. 5000 BCE), yielding the largest body of intricately crafted jade artifacts created by any single civilization.
For the Chinese, since ancient times, the stone carried a variety of symbolism. White or whitish green Jade was most common in China since Jade comes in a great variation. Notably, Jade was more valued than other precious stones and metals, even Gold!
First is a green Jade horse from the Han dynasty and the second is a white Jade dragon from the Yuan Dynasty. Note the difference of colour.
Since the dawn of Chinese cultural development, one of the few animals have constantly beheld it's supreme status in the mythistory of China from prehistoric hunting societies to advanced civilized dynasties - the Bear. A symbol of heaven, resurrection, immortality, divinity, valour, ancestory and wisdom, the bear has long been revered as a sacred animal in Prehistoric and ancient China as evident in Bear totem, Bear worship, Bear iconography, Bear myth and Legends etc.
We come to see bears appearing constantly in Neolithic cultures of China like Hongshan, Xinglongwa, Erlitou, Liangzhu to ancient dynasties of Xia, Shang, Zhou, Chu, Qin, Han, Qing etc as sacred and mythological beings connected with legendary figures and sacred elements of nature, cosmology and metaphysics. Why it is important to discover the bear totem in China? Because China itself is very important as being one of earliest civilization to appear on planet earth along with Mesopotamia, Mesoamerica, Andean, Egypt and Indus valley and China is the mother of all Sinic civilizations we know today like Japan and Korea etc; and so seeing how much the bear was revered in this important area of the world in pretty much interesting.
Remains of the Niuheliang temple of Hongshan culture, the first ever complete religious temple in Neolithic China with various Jade and stone figures carved in 'Bear' forms.
But before we dive into this, I want to clarify some important keywords. Since most of us are not much familiar to Chinese history and mythology as we are with Egyptian or Greek, down here I have explained some important sacred materials, dynasties, cultures and symbols important to Chinese mythology and history. A link is provided to each to ease further inquiring if needed by the user.
Dynasties
1. Xia dynasty (2070 - 1600 BC)
The Xia dynasty (Chinese: 夏朝; pinyin: Xiàcháo; Wade–Giles: Hsia4-ch‘ao2) is the first dynasty in traditional Chinese historiography. According to tradition, it was established by the legendary figure Yu the Great, after Shun, the last of the Five Emperors, gave the throne to him. The legendary figure of the deified king Yu the great, Gun and Qi belong to this dynasty. This dynasty is thought to be the culmination of all prehistoric and ancient Chinese cultures in myth-history, making it an important dynasty.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xia_dynasty
2. Shang Dynasty (1600 - 1046 BC)
The Shang dynasty (Chinese: 商朝; pinyin: Shāng cháo), also known as the Yin dynasty (殷代; Yīn dài), was a Chinese royal dynasty that ruled in the Yellow River valley during the second millennium BC, traditionally succeeding the Xia dynasty and followed by the Western Zhou dynasty. The existence of Xia dynasty is a topic of controversy, however, the historical proof of Shang Dynasty is undisputed among historians.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shang_dynasty
3. Zhou Dynasty (1046 - 256 BC)
The Zhou dynasty ([ʈʂóʊ]; Chinese: 周)[c] was a royal dynasty of China that existed for 789 years from c. 1046 BC until 256 BC, the longest of such reign in Chinese history. During the Western Zhou period (c. 1046 – 771 BC), the royal house, surnamed Ji, had military control over ancient China. It was divided into two distinct states: Eastern and Western Zhou.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_dynasty
4. Chu dynasty (1030 BC – 223 BC)
Being one of the most important and long reigning dynasties in Chinese history, the Chu (Chinese: 楚; pinyin: Chǔ; Wade–Giles: Ch'u, Old Chinese: *s-r̥aʔ[3]) was an ancient Chinese state during the Zhou dynasty. Their first ruler was King Wu of Chu in the early 8th century BC. Chu was located in the south of the Zhou heartland and lasted during the Spring and Autumn period. At the end of the Warring States period it was destroyed by the Qin in 223 BC during the Qin's wars of unification. As the founder of the Han dynasty was from the state, Chu culture would later become a basis of the culture of the later Han dynasty.
Chu state shown in Red colour by 300 BC.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chu_(state)
5. Qin Dynasty (221 BC–206 BC)
The Qin dynasty ( 秦 ) was the first dynasty of Imperial China. It was formally established after the conquests in 221 BC, when Ying Zheng, who had become king of the Qin state in 246, declared himself to be "Shi Huangdi", the first emperor. Many important governmental, military and other reforms took place during Qin era and many warring states were unified as well under their heel.
Qin empire shown in orange colour adjacent to other countries.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qin_dynasty
5. Han dynasty (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD)
The Han dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and a warring interregnum known as the Chu–Han contention (206–202 BC), and it was succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD).
The dynasty was briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD) established by the usurping regent Wang Mang, and is thus separated into two periods—the Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) and the Eastern Han (25–220 AD).
Spanning over four centuries, the Han dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history, and had a permanent impact on Chinese identity in later periods.The majority ethnic group of modern China refer to themselves as the "Han people" or "Han Chinese".
The Han dynasty oversaw periods of economic prosperity as well as significant growth in the money economy that had first been established during the Zhou dynasty (c. 1050 – 256 BC).
There were significant advances in science and technology during the Han period, including the emergence of paper making, rudders for steering ships, negative numbers in mathematics, raised-relief maps, hydraulic-powered armillary spheres for astronomy, and seismometers that discerned the cardinal direction of distant earthquakes by use of inverted pendulums.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty
Eras
The warring states period (475–221 BC)
The Warring States period was an era in ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, bureaucratic and military reform, and political consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded with the wars of conquest that saw the state of Qin annex all the other contender states by 221 BC and found the Qin dynasty, the first imperial dynasty in Chinese history.
The seven Warring States of Yan, Zhao, Han, Wei, Qi, Chu, Qin c. 260 BC
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warring_States_period
Mythological symbols and terms
1. Middle (a very sacred position)
In Chinese myth and cosmology, the middle position is the most revered position; even the word 'China' is their language translates to "middle' which alone signifies this position's high status. They called themselves 'zhong' which means 'middle kingdom'. Some examples:
"We know that in Chinese, China literally means the middle kingdom. The most powerful country in the whole universe must be in the middle. So, the central position is for the holiest of all, which is the king of gods in the universe." (p.50)
books.google.com.pk/books?id=fSbsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA55&dq=bear%20totem%20in%20chu&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved
"At different times China was called the Middle or Central Kingdom, implying its superior role, the Centre of Civilisation or even the World."
australian.museum/learn/cultures/international-collection/chinese/middle-kingdom/
2. Heavens {Tian (天)}
Tian (天) is one of the oldest Chinese terms for heaven and a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophy, and religion.
Tian was viewed as "the dwelling place of gods and other superhuman beings". It was also viewed as "the guardian of both the moral laws of mankind and the physical laws of nature...and is synonymous with the divine will.
In Chinese culture, heaven tends to be "synonymous with order", "containing the blueprints for creation", "the mandate by which earthly rulers govern, and the standards by which to measure beauty, goodness, and truth.
In ancient China, the Emperor of China was regarded as the Son of Heaven, who administered earthly matters on behalf of, and representing, heavenly authority.
The 'Temple of Heavens', one of most beautiful and symbolic structure connected to the heavenly spirit in China.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tian#:~:text=In%20Chinese%20culture%2C%20heaven%20tends
3. Immortality
Immortality, rebirth and dead soul has an important figure in Chinese religious and philosophical themes.
4. Bear-dragons
Also called pig-dragons though according to the recent and authentic sources it has been corrected to bear dragons; those C-shaped Jade artefacts are the earliest form of Chinese dragon and they are though as the first representation of dragon in the Sinic world.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pig_dragon
5. Xiong means bear, some mythic bear names:
Feixiong: flying bear
Daxiong: big bear
Tia Xiong: heavenly bear
Important terms
Big tradition & small tradition
The terms "Big Tradition" and "Small Tradition" were introduced by the anthropologist Robert Redfield in his 1956 book "Peasant Society and Culture". Redfield used these terms to distinguish between two types of cultural traditions:
Big Tradition:
- Refers to the dominant, mainstream culture of a society
- Characterized by:
- High-level, formal, and standardized cultural expressions (e.g., literature, art, music)
- Often associated with urban, educated, and elite groups
- May be influenced by global or universal cultural trends
- Examples: National cultures, religious traditions, or artistic movements
Small Tradition:
- Refers to local, folk, or vernacular cultural expressions
- Characterized by:
- Informal, practical, and community-based cultural practices (e.g., customs, rituals, crafts)
- Often associated with rural, local, or marginalized groups
- May be unique to a specific region or community
- Examples: Folk music, local dialects, traditional crafts, or community celebrations
Key differences:
- Big Tradition is more formal, standardized, and widely recognized, while Small Tradition is more informal, local, and community-based.
- Big Tradition often has higher social status and prestige, while Small Tradition may be seen as more authentic or genuine.
- Big Tradition may be more influenced by global or universal trends, while Small Tradition is often more rooted in local context and history.
Redfield's distinction highlights the diversity and complexity of cultural expressions within societies, emphasizing the importance of considering both the dominant and local traditions in understanding human culture.
Sacred material and Art
1. Jade (Semi-precious stone)
Chinese jade refers to the jade mined or carved in China from the Neolithic onward. It is the primary hardstone of Chinese sculpture.
In particular, its subtle, translucent colors and protective qualities caused it to become associated with Chinese conceptions of the soul and immortality. With gold, it was considered to be a symbol of heaven. Jade production began in China over seven millennia ago (c. 5000 BCE), yielding the largest body of intricately crafted jade artifacts created by any single civilization.
For the Chinese, since ancient times, the stone carried a variety of symbolism. White or whitish green Jade was most common in China since Jade comes in a great variation. Notably, Jade was more valued than other precious stones and metals, even Gold!
First is a green Jade horse from the Han dynasty and the second is a white Jade dragon from the Yuan Dynasty. Note the difference of colour.
2. Turquoise ( Semi-precious stone)
Valued for its colour and rarity, turquoise has been mined for art since ancient times in China. It has deep symbolic meaning in Sinic cultures and represents the sky which is an important element of the universe in Chinese cosmology.
From Erlitou culture as this culture is famous for its turquoise arts.
From Erlitou culture as this culture is famous for its turquoise arts.
3. Gold
Gold, a metal of great significance in all over the world since ancient times was also precious for Chinese as well. However, gold never rivalled the value of Jade for Chinese.
Ancient Chinese cast openwork dagger hilt, 6th–5th centuries BC, gold, British Museum
4. Bi
The bi (Chinese: 璧) is a type of circular ancient Chinese jade artifact. The earliest bi were produced in the Neolithic period, particularly by the Liangzhu culture (3400–2250 BCE). Later examples date mainly from the Shang, Zhou and Han dynasties. They were also made in glass.
Later traditions associate the bi with heaven, and the cong with the earth. Bi discs are consistently found with heaven and earth-like imagery, suggesting that the disk's circular shape also bears symbolic significance.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi_(jade)
5. Ding
Ding (Chinese: 鼎) are prehistoric and ancient Chinese cauldrons standing upon legs with a lid and two fancy facing handles. They are one of the most important shapes used in Chinese ritual bronzes. They were made in two shapes: round vessels with three legs and rectangular ones with four, the latter often called fāng dǐng "square ding (方鼎. They were used for cooking, storage, and ritual offerings to the gods or to ancestors.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ding_(vessel)
1. Hongshan culture (4700 - 2900 BC)
The Hongshan culture (simplified Chinese: 红山文化; traditional Chinese: 紅山文化; pinyin: Hóngshān wénhuà) was a Neolithic culture in the West Liao river basin in northeast China. Hongshan sites have been found in an area stretching from Inner Mongolia to Liaoning, and dated from about 4700 to 2900 BC.
Hongshan culture is believed to have exerted an influence on the development of early Chinese civilization. The culture may have also contributed to the development of settlements in ancient Korea. The extensive Jade working, creation of the dragon figure many other important Chinese mythological and artistic themes are thought to be developed and driven from this culture.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongshan_culture
2. Erlitou culture (1900 - 1500 BC)
The Erlitou culture (Chinese: 二里頭; pinyin: Èrlǐtóu) was an early Bronze Age society and archaeological culture. It existed in the Yellow River valley from approximately 1900 to 1500 BC. A 2007 study of radiocarbon dating proposed a narrower date range of 1750 to 1530 BC. The culture is named after Erlitou, an archaeological site in Yanshi, Henan.
Most archaeologists consider Erlitou the first state-level society in China. Chinese archaeologists generally identify the Erlitou culture as the site of the Xia dynasty, but there is no firm evidence, such as writing, to substantiate such a linkage, as the earliest evidence of Chinese writing dates to the Late Shang period.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erlitou_culture
3. Liangzhu culture (3300 - 2300 BC)
The Liangzhu (/ˈljɑːŋˈdʒuː/) culture or civilization (3300–2300 BC) was the last Chinese Neolithic jade culture in the Yangtze River Delta. The culture was highly stratified, as jade, silk, ivory and lacquer artifacts were found exclusively in elite burials.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liangzhu_culture
4. Xinglongwa culture (6200 - 5400 BC)
The Xinglongwa culture (興隆洼文化) (6200–5400 BC) was a Neolithic culture in northeastern China, found mainly around the Inner Mongolia-Liaoning border at the Liao River basin.
The artefact assemblage at the site includes pottery, lithic tools, and lithic, osseous, shell and jade ornaments. The site has yielded some of the earliest jade artefacts in China. The jade assemblage consists primarily of slit rings, although tubes, chisels and other artefacts were also found.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinglongwa_culture
5. Lower Xiajiadian culture (2200 - 1600 BC)
The Lower Xiajiadian culture (simplified Chinese: 夏家店下层文化; traditional Chinese: 夏家店下層文化; pinyin: Xiàjiādiàn xiàcéng wénhuà; 2200–1600 BC) is an archaeological culture in Northeast China, found mainly in southeastern Inner Mongolia, northern Hebei, and western Liaoning, China. Subsistence was based on millet farming supplemented with animal husbandry and hunting.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Xiajiadian_culture
Here is a list of all Neolithic cultures of China.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China
Ancient Chinese cast openwork dagger hilt, 6th–5th centuries BC, gold, British Museum
4. Bi
The bi (Chinese: 璧) is a type of circular ancient Chinese jade artifact. The earliest bi were produced in the Neolithic period, particularly by the Liangzhu culture (3400–2250 BCE). Later examples date mainly from the Shang, Zhou and Han dynasties. They were also made in glass.
Later traditions associate the bi with heaven, and the cong with the earth. Bi discs are consistently found with heaven and earth-like imagery, suggesting that the disk's circular shape also bears symbolic significance.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi_(jade)
5. Ding
Ding (Chinese: 鼎) are prehistoric and ancient Chinese cauldrons standing upon legs with a lid and two fancy facing handles. They are one of the most important shapes used in Chinese ritual bronzes. They were made in two shapes: round vessels with three legs and rectangular ones with four, the latter often called fāng dǐng "square ding (方鼎. They were used for cooking, storage, and ritual offerings to the gods or to ancestors.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ding_(vessel)
Neolithic and ancient cultures
Neolithic era (10000 - 2200 BC)
1. Hongshan culture (4700 - 2900 BC)
The Hongshan culture (simplified Chinese: 红山文化; traditional Chinese: 紅山文化; pinyin: Hóngshān wénhuà) was a Neolithic culture in the West Liao river basin in northeast China. Hongshan sites have been found in an area stretching from Inner Mongolia to Liaoning, and dated from about 4700 to 2900 BC.
Hongshan culture is believed to have exerted an influence on the development of early Chinese civilization. The culture may have also contributed to the development of settlements in ancient Korea. The extensive Jade working, creation of the dragon figure many other important Chinese mythological and artistic themes are thought to be developed and driven from this culture.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongshan_culture
2. Erlitou culture (1900 - 1500 BC)
The Erlitou culture (Chinese: 二里頭; pinyin: Èrlǐtóu) was an early Bronze Age society and archaeological culture. It existed in the Yellow River valley from approximately 1900 to 1500 BC. A 2007 study of radiocarbon dating proposed a narrower date range of 1750 to 1530 BC. The culture is named after Erlitou, an archaeological site in Yanshi, Henan.
Most archaeologists consider Erlitou the first state-level society in China. Chinese archaeologists generally identify the Erlitou culture as the site of the Xia dynasty, but there is no firm evidence, such as writing, to substantiate such a linkage, as the earliest evidence of Chinese writing dates to the Late Shang period.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erlitou_culture
3. Liangzhu culture (3300 - 2300 BC)
The Liangzhu (/ˈljɑːŋˈdʒuː/) culture or civilization (3300–2300 BC) was the last Chinese Neolithic jade culture in the Yangtze River Delta. The culture was highly stratified, as jade, silk, ivory and lacquer artifacts were found exclusively in elite burials.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liangzhu_culture
4. Xinglongwa culture (6200 - 5400 BC)
The Xinglongwa culture (興隆洼文化) (6200–5400 BC) was a Neolithic culture in northeastern China, found mainly around the Inner Mongolia-Liaoning border at the Liao River basin.
The artefact assemblage at the site includes pottery, lithic tools, and lithic, osseous, shell and jade ornaments. The site has yielded some of the earliest jade artefacts in China. The jade assemblage consists primarily of slit rings, although tubes, chisels and other artefacts were also found.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinglongwa_culture
5. Lower Xiajiadian culture (2200 - 1600 BC)
The Lower Xiajiadian culture (simplified Chinese: 夏家店下层文化; traditional Chinese: 夏家店下層文化; pinyin: Xiàjiādiàn xiàcéng wénhuà; 2200–1600 BC) is an archaeological culture in Northeast China, found mainly in southeastern Inner Mongolia, northern Hebei, and western Liaoning, China. Subsistence was based on millet farming supplemented with animal husbandry and hunting.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Xiajiadian_culture
Here is a list of all Neolithic cultures of China.
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China
